Critical Social Theory References

Lapum, J., Hamzavi, N. , Veljkovic, K., Mohamed, Z., Pettinato, A., Silver, S. and Taylor, E. (2011). A performative and poetical narrative of critical social theory in nursing education: an ending and threshold of social justice. Nursing Philosophy, 13, 27–45. MacFarlane, C. (2006). Advanced Introduction to Critical Social Theory. Retrieved from: http://theoria.ca/research/files/cstcomp.pdf McEwen, M. and Wills, E. (2011). Theoretical basis for nursing (3 ed.). Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. Sumner, J., and Danielson, E. (2007). Critical Social Theory as a means of analysis for caring in nursing. International Journal for Human Caring, 11(1), 30-37. Wilson-Thomas, L. (1995). Applying critical social theory in nursing education to bridge the gap between theory, research and practice. Joumal of Advanced Nursing, 21, 568-575.

Critical Social Theory

As part of the requirement for Advance Nursing Theory at the Universuty of North Alabama, we are asked to create a blog that discusses a borrowed theory that can and is uded in nursing. In previous posts, I discussed Modeling and Social Learning Theory. For this class, I'll discuss the Critical Social Theory. According to McEwen and Mills (2011), Critical Social Theory uses societal awareness to expose social inequalities that would keep people from reaching their full potential. It questions and challenges all forms of domination and exploitation and assumes that the truth is socially determined (McFarlane, 2006). Also, critical social theory involves an intense and critical determination towards freedom by drawing a person’s attention to oppression and the constraints of human behavior (Lapum, Hamzavi, Veljkovic, Mohamed, Pettinato, Silver & Taylor, 2011). McEwen and Mills (2011) state that critical social theory assumes that the truth is socially determined and people must question their assumptions to identify any oppressive social arrangements through self reflection. Critical Social Theory has many uses in nursing. Sumner and Danielson (2007) explore the relationship between Critical Social Theory and nurse-patient relationships within the constraints of the health care delivery system. They state that the critical social theory is a tool that can probe for gaps, silences and false construction in communication between the nurse-patient relationships in order to identify oppressed voices (Sumner & Danielson, 2007). It also provides opportunities to question historical and current influences, confront unquestioned norms and values and these norms and values relevance in current nursing practice. Lastly, Critical Social Theory facilitates understanding of caring in nursing (Sumner & Danielson, 2007). Sumner and Danielson (2007) conclude that through critical reflection that nurses develop insights that can explain central nursing values so they can be implemented in their practice. When Critical Social Theory is applied to nursing practice, there can be an increased understanding of nursing’s traditional value and roles in the history of healthcare. It also is a mean for nurses to acknowledge their own feelings that may influence their practice and question the traditional roles of nursing and their relevance (Sumner & Danielson, 2007). I am planning on working as a nurse educator upon graduation; therefore, I was interested in the role of theory within nursing education. Wilson-Thomas (1995) states that when Critical Social Theory is applied to nursing education, it bridges the gap between theory, research and practice and the congruency between theories, research and practice is critical in professional development. When Critical Social Theory is used in nursing education, it can assist nurses and nurse educators in analyzing the knowledge that is generated from androcentric ideology, so that the nursing care provided can be promoted and maintained from a caring, humanistic and contextual perspective (Wilson-Thomas, 1995). Critical Social Theory will also enable nurse educators and nursing students to challenge the traditional norms within nursing, in order to uncover hidden meanings and constraining sociopolitical barriers to optional health for every health care client (Wilson-Thomas, 1995).

Modeling Process

Not all behaviors that are observed can be learned. There are certain requirements and steps that must be followed in order for learning to take place. The following steps are involved in modeling process in order for learning to take place:

1. Attention. In order for learning to take place, one needs to pay attention to the model and the important aspects of the behavior. Anything that is distracting is going to have a negative effect on learning. One the other hand, if the model is interesting the learner is more likely to dedicate their full attention to the modeled behavior.

2. Retention. Retention is the ability to store information which is also an important part of the learning process. Ormrod has identified several ways in which behaviors can be remembered. They are: rehearsal and memory codes.

3. Reproduction. This, of course, is the actual reproduction of the behavior that has been modeled. Reproduction of the behavior is improtant for two reasons. One, it enables learners to encode the behavior in the motoric form. Secondly, if the behavior is reproduced in the presence of the model, the learner can get feedback from the model.

4. Motivation. Lastly, in order for observational learning to be a success, you have to be motivated to imitate the behavior that has been modeled. Reinforcement and punishment play an important role in motivation. Reinforcement and punishment was briefly discussed in an earlier post.

References:
Cherry, K. (n.d.). Social Learning Theory- An overview of Bandura's Social Learning Theory. About.com Guide Retrieve April 19, 2010 from
http://psychology.about.com/od/developmentalpsychology/a/sociallearning.htm

Ormrod, J. (2008). Human Learning (5th Ed.). Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Pearson Merrill Prentice Hall.

Disadvantages of Modeling

For effective modeling to occur, Bandura suggested four conditions that are necessary before a person can effectively model the behavior of someone else. These conditions are attention, retention, motor reproduction, and motivation (Ormrod, 2008). These conditions vary from person to person and different people will model behaviors differently. Also the absence of any one of these conditions can make modeling unlikely to occur.

A person must first pay attention to the modeled behavior to be able to imitate the behavior accurately. If the person pays attention to irrelevant parts of the modeled behavior then correct learning or modeling will not occur. Also, anything that detracts from your attention is going to have a negative impact on you learning. After paying attention, the person must remember the behavior that was observed. If the behavior is not remembered correctly, correct modeling cannot occur. Replication of the behavior, motor reproduction, is the next step or condition. If a person cannot reproduce the observed behavior because of physical immaturity, disability, lack of strength, or lack of understanding, motor reproduction cannot occur. Lastly, a person must have the motivation to learn a modeled behavior and the desire to demonstrate what they have learned (Ormrod, 2008). As stated previously, behavior will be modeled differently from person to person or not at all depending on each of these conditions.

References:

Ormrod, J.E. (2008). Human Learning (5th Ed.). Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Pearson Merrill Prentice Hall.

Advantages of Modeling

Many behaviors that people learn have been acquired by observing others and then modeling what they have done. People can learn new behaviors through direct observation of the model. Modeling can have a positive impact on students’ academic skills and their morality. A person can learn academic skills such as new competencies, cognitive skills, and behavior patterns by observing others (models) whom accurately demonstrate academic skills. Morality, moral judgments and generosity can be learned through observation and modeling (Ormrod, 2008). Modeling can also serve as social prompts that help behavior in social transactions. Modeling can serve as instructors, motivators, inhibitors, disinhibitors, social facilitators, and emotion arousers (Bandura, 1989). Exposure to a variety of models can further enhance a persons’ learning.

References:
Bandura, A. (1989). Social Cognitive Theory. Retrieved on April 19, 2010 from
http://www.des.emory.edu/mfp/Bandura1989ACD.pdf

Ormrod, J.E.(2008). Human Learning (5th Ed.). Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Pearson Merrill Prentice Hall.

Educational Implications

According to Ormrod, there are several implications for classroom use with Social Cognitive Theory and modeling:

1. Students learn a great deal by simple observing others.
2. Describing the consequences of behaviors can effectively increase appropriate behaviors and decrease inapprpriate one.
3. Modeling provides an alternative to shaping for teaching new behaviors.
4. Teachers, parents and other adults must model appropriate behaviors and take care that they don't model innapropriate ones.
5. Exposure to a variety of other models further enhances the students' learning.
6. Students must believe that they are capable of accomplishing school tasks.
7. Teachers should help students set realistic expectations for their accomplishments.
8. Self-regulation techinques provide effective methods for improving student behavior (2008, pp. 145-47).

References

Ormrod, J. (2008). Human Learning (5th Ed.). Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Pearson Merrill Prentice Hall.

Reinforcement and Punishment with Modeling

In the Social Cognitive Theory, people are often reinforced for modeling the behavior of others. Bandura has suggested that the environment also reinforces and punishes modeling. There are several possible ways a person is reinforced or punished through modeling and the environment:

1. The observer is reinforced by the model. People often reinforce others that copy wat they do and adults often reinforce children for culturally appropriate behaviors.
2. The observer is reinforced by a thrid person. The observer might be modeling the actions of someone else and is reinforced by this person.
3. The imitated behavior itself leads to reinforcing consequences. There are many behaviors that learned through observation that will produce satisying (reinforcing) results.
4. Consequences of the model’s behavior affect the observers behavior vicariously. When a person observes a model making a particular response, they may also observe the consequence(s) of the response. If the model in reinforced for the response, the observer may show an increase in that response (Ormrod, 2008, pp. 120-21).

Reference
Ormrod, J.E (2008). Human Learning (5th Ed.). Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Pearson Merrill Prentice Hall.