Modeling Process

Not all behaviors that are observed can be learned. There are certain requirements and steps that must be followed in order for learning to take place. The following steps are involved in modeling process in order for learning to take place:

1. Attention. In order for learning to take place, one needs to pay attention to the model and the important aspects of the behavior. Anything that is distracting is going to have a negative effect on learning. One the other hand, if the model is interesting the learner is more likely to dedicate their full attention to the modeled behavior.

2. Retention. Retention is the ability to store information which is also an important part of the learning process. Ormrod has identified several ways in which behaviors can be remembered. They are: rehearsal and memory codes.

3. Reproduction. This, of course, is the actual reproduction of the behavior that has been modeled. Reproduction of the behavior is improtant for two reasons. One, it enables learners to encode the behavior in the motoric form. Secondly, if the behavior is reproduced in the presence of the model, the learner can get feedback from the model.

4. Motivation. Lastly, in order for observational learning to be a success, you have to be motivated to imitate the behavior that has been modeled. Reinforcement and punishment play an important role in motivation. Reinforcement and punishment was briefly discussed in an earlier post.

References:
Cherry, K. (n.d.). Social Learning Theory- An overview of Bandura's Social Learning Theory. About.com Guide Retrieve April 19, 2010 from
http://psychology.about.com/od/developmentalpsychology/a/sociallearning.htm

Ormrod, J. (2008). Human Learning (5th Ed.). Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Pearson Merrill Prentice Hall.

Disadvantages of Modeling

For effective modeling to occur, Bandura suggested four conditions that are necessary before a person can effectively model the behavior of someone else. These conditions are attention, retention, motor reproduction, and motivation (Ormrod, 2008). These conditions vary from person to person and different people will model behaviors differently. Also the absence of any one of these conditions can make modeling unlikely to occur.

A person must first pay attention to the modeled behavior to be able to imitate the behavior accurately. If the person pays attention to irrelevant parts of the modeled behavior then correct learning or modeling will not occur. Also, anything that detracts from your attention is going to have a negative impact on you learning. After paying attention, the person must remember the behavior that was observed. If the behavior is not remembered correctly, correct modeling cannot occur. Replication of the behavior, motor reproduction, is the next step or condition. If a person cannot reproduce the observed behavior because of physical immaturity, disability, lack of strength, or lack of understanding, motor reproduction cannot occur. Lastly, a person must have the motivation to learn a modeled behavior and the desire to demonstrate what they have learned (Ormrod, 2008). As stated previously, behavior will be modeled differently from person to person or not at all depending on each of these conditions.

References:

Ormrod, J.E. (2008). Human Learning (5th Ed.). Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Pearson Merrill Prentice Hall.

Advantages of Modeling

Many behaviors that people learn have been acquired by observing others and then modeling what they have done. People can learn new behaviors through direct observation of the model. Modeling can have a positive impact on students’ academic skills and their morality. A person can learn academic skills such as new competencies, cognitive skills, and behavior patterns by observing others (models) whom accurately demonstrate academic skills. Morality, moral judgments and generosity can be learned through observation and modeling (Ormrod, 2008). Modeling can also serve as social prompts that help behavior in social transactions. Modeling can serve as instructors, motivators, inhibitors, disinhibitors, social facilitators, and emotion arousers (Bandura, 1989). Exposure to a variety of models can further enhance a persons’ learning.

References:
Bandura, A. (1989). Social Cognitive Theory. Retrieved on April 19, 2010 from
http://www.des.emory.edu/mfp/Bandura1989ACD.pdf

Ormrod, J.E.(2008). Human Learning (5th Ed.). Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Pearson Merrill Prentice Hall.

Educational Implications

According to Ormrod, there are several implications for classroom use with Social Cognitive Theory and modeling:

1. Students learn a great deal by simple observing others.
2. Describing the consequences of behaviors can effectively increase appropriate behaviors and decrease inapprpriate one.
3. Modeling provides an alternative to shaping for teaching new behaviors.
4. Teachers, parents and other adults must model appropriate behaviors and take care that they don't model innapropriate ones.
5. Exposure to a variety of other models further enhances the students' learning.
6. Students must believe that they are capable of accomplishing school tasks.
7. Teachers should help students set realistic expectations for their accomplishments.
8. Self-regulation techinques provide effective methods for improving student behavior (2008, pp. 145-47).

References

Ormrod, J. (2008). Human Learning (5th Ed.). Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Pearson Merrill Prentice Hall.

Reinforcement and Punishment with Modeling

In the Social Cognitive Theory, people are often reinforced for modeling the behavior of others. Bandura has suggested that the environment also reinforces and punishes modeling. There are several possible ways a person is reinforced or punished through modeling and the environment:

1. The observer is reinforced by the model. People often reinforce others that copy wat they do and adults often reinforce children for culturally appropriate behaviors.
2. The observer is reinforced by a thrid person. The observer might be modeling the actions of someone else and is reinforced by this person.
3. The imitated behavior itself leads to reinforcing consequences. There are many behaviors that learned through observation that will produce satisying (reinforcing) results.
4. Consequences of the model’s behavior affect the observers behavior vicariously. When a person observes a model making a particular response, they may also observe the consequence(s) of the response. If the model in reinforced for the response, the observer may show an increase in that response (Ormrod, 2008, pp. 120-21).

Reference
Ormrod, J.E (2008). Human Learning (5th Ed.). Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Pearson Merrill Prentice Hall.

Modeling Overview

According to the Social Cognitive Theory many of the behaviors we exhibit are acquired through observing and then modeling what people do. Effective modeling
teaches general rules and principles that can be applied to any situation.

One of the basic principles of social cognitive theory is that it focuses on role models and the reinforcement that that model receives.

According to Ormrod modeling has several effects on a persons behavior. These effects are identified as:
1. Modeling teaches new behaviors. A person can learn new behaviors by observing others performing those behaviors.
2. Modeling influences the frequency of previously learned behaviors. People are more likely to exhibit behaviors that have been previously learned if they see others being reinforced for those behaviors.
3. Modeling may encourage previously forbidden behaviors. Sometimes, when a person observes a model engaging in a forbidden behavior, especially when the model is being reinforced, they are most likely to engage in the behavior too.
4. Modeling increases the frequency of similar behaviors. When a person observes a model performing a particular behavior, the person observing may display similar rather than identical behaviors (Ormrod, 2008, pp 127).

There are three types of models, live models, symbolic models and verbal instructions. A live model is an actual person demonstrating the behavior. A symbolic model is a person/character portrayed in the media, print (ie books, magazines) and other mediums. Verbal instructions are verbal instructions of how to behave (Ormrod, 2008).

Characteristics of an effective model are:
1. The model is competent.
2. the model has prestige and power.
3. The model behaves in stereotypical gender-appropriate ways.
4. The model's behavior is relevant to the observer's situation.



References:

Bastable, S.E. (2006). Essentials of Patient Education. Sudbury Massachusetts: Jones and Bartlett Publishers.

Ormrod, J. (2008). Human Learning (5th Ed.). Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Pearson Merrill Prentice Hall.

Social Cognitive Theory Overview

Social Cognitive Theory was developed by Albert Bandura in the early 1960’s and stemmed from the Social Learning Theory. Bandura believed that reinforcement could not account for every type of learning. This theory focuses on how people learn from one another and encompasses concepts such as observational learning, imitation, and modeling (Ormrod, 2008). Social cognitive theory helps to explain human behavior in terms of interaction between cognitive, behavioral, and environmental influences (Learning-Theories.com, n.d.). Social cognitive theory has often been described as linking behaviorist and cognitive learning theories because it encompasses attention, memory, and motivation and describes behavior in regards to cognitive, behavioral and environmental influences.

Social Cognitive Theory defines human behavior as cognitive, vicarious, self-regulatory, and self-reflective processes in human adaptation, learning and change. People are described as self-organizing, proactive, self-reflecting instead of reactive organisms that are shaped by environmental forces or driven by inner impulses. From the social cognitive perspective, human functioning is described as the product of a dynamic interplay between personal, behavioral, and environmental influences (Pajares,2002).



According to the social cognitive theory, many behaviors that are exhibited have been acquired by observing other people and modeling what has been observed. Three basic models of observational learning were identified. One type of model is a live model which is an actual individual demonstrating or acting out a behavior. A second type of model is a verbal instructional model. Verbal instructional mode is descriptions and explanations of a behavior. The third type of model is a symbolic model. Symbolic models are real or fictional characters displaying behaviors in books, films, television programs, or online media (Van Wagner, 2010).

There are four main components that are identified in the social cognitive theory, which are attention, retention, reproduction, and motivation. To accurately imitate a behavior, one has to pay attention to the model and the significant aspects of the modeled behavior. After paying attention, the learner must remember the observed behavior (retention). Third, the person must have the ability and opportunity to reproduce the behavior. Lastly, the learner must have the motivation to demonstrate what they have learned (Ormrod, 2008).

Ormrod identifies several general principles of Social Cognitive Theory, which are:

1. People can learn by observing the behaviors of others, as well as by observing the outcomes of those behaviors. With Social Cognitive Learning theory, theorist propose that learning takes place by observing the behavior of models instead of trial and error.
2. Learning can occur without a change in behavior. Social Cognitive Theorists believe that learning can occur through observing models and hterefore, learning may not necessarily be reflected in the learners actions. Behavior may be exhibited at the same time learning occurs, at a later time or never.
3. The consequences of behavior play a role in learning. The role of consequences has evolved over the years as the theory has evovled. Contemporary theorists propse that reinforcement and punishment have less crucial and indirect effects on learning.
4. Cognition also pays a role in learning. Theorists claim that an awareness of responses to reinforcement and punishment is essential to the learning process. Expectations of future reinforcements and punishments can have an impact on a person's behavior. Also, retemtion and attention are incorporated in the Social Cognitive Theory.
5. People can have a considerable control over their actions and environments. With Social Cognitive Theory, a person can actively create or modify their environment, either by making the changes themselves or by convincing others to assist and support their efforts. (Ormrod, 2008, pp. 119-120).

References

Ormrod, J. (2008). Human Learning (Fifth Edition). Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Pearson Merrill Prentice Hall.

Pajares, F. (2002). Overview of Social Cognitive Theory and of Self-Efficacy. Retrieved on April 7, 2010 from http://des.emory.edu/mfp/eff.html

Social Learning (Theory). Learning-Theory. Com Retrieved on April 1, 2010 from http://www.learning-theories.com/social-learning-theory-bandura.html

Van Wagner, K. (2010). Social Learning Theory: An overview of Bandura's Social Learning. About.com Guide. Retrieved April 1, 2010 from http://psychology.about.com/od/developmentalpsychology/a/sociallearning.htm